# HG changeset patch # User Daichi TOMA # Date 1391292655 -32400 # Node ID ff03e6179f195130cd0a1a2a66e9ccbb230ab2f5 # Parent 0defed6571919e32d0ba1364d50fcf7ea0d2564e describe the design. diff -r 0defed657191 -r ff03e6179f19 paper/chapter2.tex --- a/paper/chapter2.tex Sat Feb 01 12:40:07 2014 +0900 +++ b/paper/chapter2.tex Sun Feb 02 07:10:55 2014 +0900 @@ -1,33 +1,34 @@ \chapter{Haskellによる並列データベースの設計}\label{ch:design} -\section{スケーラビリティのあるデータベース} -本研究の目標はマルチスレッド環境でのスケーラビリティのあるデータベースの開発である。 -データベースは、ウェブサービスでの利用を前提とする。 -Twitter や Facebook などのタイムラインは多少遅延しても問題のないサービスである。 -これはデータの整合性を犠牲にできることを意味し、結果的に整合性が保たれればよいという考え方であり結果整合性と呼ばれる。 -本研究で開発するデータベースは結果整合性の特性を持つ。 +\section{スケーラビリティのあるデータベースを実現するには} +ウェブサービスでは、ニーズの変化に柔軟に対応できる能力が求められる。 +利用者や負荷の増大に対し、CPU のコア数に応じてパフォーマンスを線形に向上できる能力、すなわちスケーラビリティが必要となる。 +スケーラビリティが線形的であれば、リソースの追加に比例したパフォーマンスを得ることが可能である。 +一方、スケーラビリティが線形的でないと、いくらリソースを追加しても必要なパフォーマンスが得られないというケースもありえる。 + +ウェブサービスにおいてデータベースは切り離すことのできない要素である。 +スケーラビリティの実現をするには、データベースの並列度が重要になる。 +CPU のコア数に応じてパフォーマンスを向上させる場合、別々の CPU コアから同時にデータベースへアクセスできればよい。 +通常は、同一のデータへアクセスする場合、競合が発生してしまい処理性能に限界が生じる。 -開発するデータベースはデータに並列にアクセスできる。 -マルチスレッド間でデータを共有する方法はいくつかある。 -最も一般的なのは、共有変数に対して排他制御を行う方法である。 -データにアクセスしてよいスレッドを1つに制限することで、そのデータが常に正しいことが保証される。 -しかしながら、1つのスレッドしかアクセスできないため、大量にデータにアクセスする場合ボトルネックとなってしまい並列度がでない。 -本研究では非破壊的木構造を採用する。 -非破壊的木構造は、最新の木構造はどれかという情報を取り扱う部分にのみ排他制御が必要で、並列に編集可能なデータ構造として扱うことができる。 -そのためマルチスレッド環境でのスケーラビリティのあるデータベースと相性がよい。 -また、ウェブサービスのデータ構造は木構造で表現することができる。 +本研究では、非破壊的木構造という手法を用いて競合が発生する問題を解決する。 +競合を発生させないためには、既にあるデータを変更しなければよい。 +非破壊的木構造は、変更元となる木構造を変更しない。 +そのため、並列にアクセスが可能であり、スケーラビリティを実現できる。 -\section{非破壊的木構造} +\newpage +\section{破壊的木構造と非破壊的木構造} 非破壊的木構造は、木構造を書き換えることなく編集を行う手法である。 -排他制御を行わず、並列に読み書きを行うことが可能である。 -元の木構造は破壊されることがないため、自由にコピーを行うことができる。 +既にあるデータを変更しないため、データの競合状態が発生せず、並列に読み書きが行える。 + +また、元の木構造は破壊されることがないため、自由にコピーを行うことができる。 コピーを複数作成することでアクセスを分散させることも可能である。 通常の破壊的木構造との違いを説明する。 \subsection{破壊的木構造} 破壊的木構造は、木構造を編集する際に木構造を書き換えることにより編集を実現する。 -図\ref{fig:destructive_tree_modification}では、ノード6をノード A に書き換える処理を行っている。 +図\ref{fig:destructive_tree_modification}では、ノード 6 をノード A に書き換える処理を行っている。 \begin{figure}[!htbp] @@ -54,6 +55,7 @@ その場合、木構造に1つのスレッドしかアクセスできないため並列度が下がりスケーラビリティを損なってしまう。 破壊的木構造では、スケーラビリティのあるデータベースの開発はできない。 +\newpage \subsection{非破壊的木構造} 非破壊的木構造は、木構造を書き換えることなく編集を行うため、読み書きを並列に行うことが可能である。 図\ref{fig:nondestructive_tree_modification}では、ノード 6 をノード A へ書き換える処理を行なっている。 @@ -72,15 +74,45 @@ 編集は以下の手順で行われる。 \begin{enumerate} -\item{変更したいノードまでのパスを求める。} -\item{変更したいノードをコピーし、コピーしたノードの内容を変更する。} -\item{求めたパス上に存在するノードをルートノードに向かって、コピーする。 コピーしたノードに一つ前にコピーしたノードを子供として追加する。} -\item{影響のないノードをコピー元の木構造と共有する。} + \item{変更したいノードまでのパスを求める(図\ref{fig:nondestructive_tree_modification_step1})。} + \item{変更したいノードをコピーし、コピーしたノードの内容を変更した新しいノードを作成する(図\ref{fig:nondestructive_tree_modification_step2})。} + \item{求めたパス上に存在するノードをルートノードに向かってコピーする。 コピーしたノードに一つ前にコピーしたノードを子供として追加した新しいノードを作成する(図\ref{fig:nondestructive_tree_modification_step3})。} + \item{影響のないノードをコピー元の木構造と共有する(図\ref{fig:nondestructive_tree_modification_step4})。} \end{enumerate} +\begin{figure}[!htbp] + \begin{center} + \includegraphics[scale=0.6]{./images/nondestructive_tree_modification_step1.pdf} + \end{center} + \caption{ステップ1 : 変更したいノードまでのパスを求める} + \label{fig:nondestructive_tree_modification_step1} +\end{figure} +\begin{figure}[!htbp] + \begin{center} + \includegraphics[scale=0.6]{./images/nondestructive_tree_modification_step2.pdf} + \end{center} + \caption{ステップ2 : 変更したいノードをコピーし、コピーしたノードの内容を変更した新しいノードを作成する} + \label{fig:nondestructive_tree_modification_step2} +\end{figure} +\begin{figure}[!htbp] + \begin{center} + \includegraphics[scale=0.6]{./images/nondestructive_tree_modification_step3.pdf} + \end{center} + \caption{ステップ3 : 求めたパス上に存在するノードをルートノードまでコピーする} + \label{fig:nondestructive_tree_modification_step3} +\end{figure} +\begin{figure}[!htbp] + \begin{center} + \includegraphics[scale=0.6]{./images/nondestructive_tree_modification_step4.pdf} + \end{center} + \caption{ステップ4 : 影響のないノードは共有する} + \label{fig:nondestructive_tree_modification_step4} +\end{figure} + +\clearpage この編集方法を用いた場合、閲覧者が木構造を参照してる間に、木の変更を行っても問題がない。 閲覧者は木が変更されたとしても、保持しているルートノードから整合性を崩さずに参照が可能である。 -ロックをせずに並列に読み書きが可能であるため、スケーラブルなシステムに有用であると考えられる。 +排他制御をせずに並列に読み書きが可能であるため、スケーラブルなシステムに有用である。 元の木構造は破壊されることがないため、自由にコピーを作成しても構わない。したがってアクセスの負荷の分散も可能である。 \begin{figure}[!htbp] @@ -93,22 +125,35 @@ \newpage -\section{Haskellの並列処理} -純粋関数型言語 Haskell は並列処理に向いていると言われる。 -しかしながら、安直にそう言い切ることはできない。 -参照透過性があるため、各々の関数の処理は独立している。 -そのため、並列で走らせても問題ないように思われるが、Haskell は遅延評価を行うため問題が発生する。 -遅延評価では、結果が必要になるまで評価せず、同じ呼び出しがあった場合メモ化を行うことで最適化を行う。 -並列で実行する際は、遅延評価を行っていては並列度を高めることができない。 -また、メモ化は結果をキャッシュするため各スレッド間で同期するコストが発生する。 -Haskell においても並列化によるコストが実際の処理とは別に発生するため、並列化箇所をよく見極める必要がある。 +\section{ルートノード} +非破壊的木構造では、ルートノードの管理が重要である。 +ルートノードは、木の最新の状態を更新・参照するのに使う。 +ルートノードの情報は、全てのスレッドで共有する必要があり、スレッドセーフに取り扱う必要がある。 +一度ルートノードの情報を取得すれば、その後は排他制御なしに木構造へアクセスできる(図\ref{fig:rootnode})。 + +\begin{figure}[!htbp] + \begin{center} + \includegraphics[scale=0.6]{./images/rootnode.pdf} + \end{center} + \caption{排他制御なしの非破壊的木構造のアクセス} + \label{fig:rootnode} +\end{figure} -Haskellでは、様々な並列化手法が提供されている。 -もちろんスレッドを直接操作することも可能である。 -本研究では、抽象度の高い Eval モナドを利用した。 -Eval モナドを利用することで、並列処理のために必要な処理の流れを分かりやすく記述することができる。 -しかしながら実行順序を細かく制御することはできない。 -Par モナドを利用すれば、並列処理の流れを細かく記述できるが、 -Eval モナドのように処理と並列処理の流れを分けて記述し、後からプログラムに並列処理を組み込むというようなことはできない。 +ルートノードはスレッド間で共有する状態を持つため、Haskell では IO モナドを用いる必要がある。 +これには、Haskell のソフトウェア・トランザクショナル・メモリ(STM)を利用する。 +STM は排他制御を行わず、スレッドセーフに状態を扱うことができる。 +STM を利用することでロック忘れによる競合状態や、デッドロックといった問題から解放される。 +STM は、STM モナドという特殊なモナドの中でのみ変更できる。 +STM モナドの中で変更したアクションのブロックを atomically コンビネータを使ってトランザクションとして実行する(atomically コンビネータを用いることで IO モナドとして返される)。 +いったんブロック内に入るとそこから出るまでは、そのブロック内の変更は他のスレッドから見ることはできない。 +こちら側のスレッドからも他のスレッドによる変更はみることはできず、実行は完全に孤立して行われる。 +トランザクションから出る時に、以下のことが1つだけ起こる。 +\begin{itemize} + \item 同じデータを平行して変更したスレッドが他になければ、加えた変更が他のスレッドから見えるようになる。 + \item そうでなければ、変更を実際に実行せずに破棄し、アクションのブロックを再度実行する。 +\end{itemize} -Haskellで並列処理を実装する場合は、どの並列化手法を採用するかということをよく考察する必要がある。 +STM は排他制御を行わないため、簡単に扱うことができる。 +ルートノードの情報の取得だけならば、並列に取得できる。 +ルートノードの情報の更新の場合は、他から変更があれば再度やり直すということが自動的に行われる。 + diff -r 0defed657191 -r ff03e6179f19 paper/chapter3.tex --- a/paper/chapter3.tex Sat Feb 01 12:40:07 2014 +0900 +++ b/paper/chapter3.tex Sun Feb 02 07:10:55 2014 +0900 @@ -226,6 +226,25 @@ アプリケーション側で、データベースを参照や変更する際に各スレッドから呼び出しても問題ない。 利用方法も、シングルスレッドで実行する場合と同じである。 +\section{Haskellの並列処理} +純粋関数型言語 Haskell は並列処理に向いていると言われる。 +しかしながら、安直にそう言い切ることはできない。 +参照透過性があるため、各々の関数の処理は独立している。 +そのため、並列で走らせても問題ないように思われるが、Haskell は遅延評価を行うため問題が発生する。 +遅延評価では、結果が必要になるまで評価せず、同じ呼び出しがあった場合メモ化を行うことで最適化を行う。 +並列で実行する際は、遅延評価を行っていては並列度を高めることができない。 +また、メモ化は結果をキャッシュするため各スレッド間で同期するコストが発生する。 + +Haskellでは、様々な並列化手法が提供されている。 +もちろんスレッドを直接操作することも可能である。 +本研究では、抽象度の高い Eval モナドを利用した。 +Eval モナドを利用することで、並列処理のために必要な処理の流れを分かりやすく記述することができる。 +しかしながら実行順序を細かく制御することはできない。 +Par モナドを利用すれば、並列処理の流れを細かく記述できるが、 +Eval モナドのように処理と並列処理の流れを分けて記述し、後からプログラムに並列処理を組み込むというようなことはできない。 + +Haskellで並列処理を実装する場合は、どの並列化手法を採用するかということをよく考察する必要がある。 + \section{Haskell の生産性} Java を用いた Jungle の実装と比較して、コード行数が約 3000 行から約 300 行へと短くなった。 diff -r 0defed657191 -r ff03e6179f19 paper/images/nondestructive_tree_modification_step1.graffle --- /dev/null Thu Jan 01 00:00:00 1970 +0000 +++ b/paper/images/nondestructive_tree_modification_step1.graffle Sun Feb 02 07:10:55 2014 +0900 @@ -0,0 +1,1521 @@ + + + + + ActiveLayerIndex + 0 + ApplicationVersion + + com.omnigroup.OmniGrafflePro + 139.17.0.185490 + + AutoAdjust + + BackgroundGraphic + + Bounds + {{0, 0}, {559, 783}} + Class + SolidGraphic + ID + 2 + Style + + shadow + + Draws + NO + + stroke + + Draws + NO + + + + BaseZoom + 0 + CanvasOrigin + {0, 0} + ColumnAlign + 1 + ColumnSpacing + 36 + CreationDate + 2013-01-21 09:07:04 +0000 + Creator + shoshi + DisplayScale + 1 0/72 in = 1.0000 in + GraphDocumentVersion + 8 + GraphicsList + + + Bounds + {{460, 117.99999999999977}, {84, 54}} + Class + ShapedGraphic + FitText + YES + Flow + Resize + 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